Applied Epistemology (Engaging Philosophy)

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Outside the realm of information, Gugerell and Riffert ( 2011) remark that wisdom has seen an upsurge of interest in the social sciences in recent decades. They seek to integrate some of the discourse from philosophy, psychology and education to establish an empirically-measurable definition of wisdom. From their analysis, Gugerell and Riffert propose a definition of wisdom that also recognizes a temporal component and moral system within which one can be considered wise. Bawden, D., and Robinson, L. (2016a). 'A different kind of knowing': speculations on understanding in light of the philosophy of information. Paper presented at Conceptions of Library and Information Science 9, Uppsala, Sweden. Retrieved from http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/14994 (Archived by WebCite® at http://www.webcitation.org/6rKuDcw8M)

The main domains of applied epistemology include education and pedagogy, therapy, politics, science and technology, arts, and artificial intelligence. [11] Applications [ edit ] Gholson, Barry; Shadish (jr.), William R.; Neimeyer, Robert; Houts, Arthur (1989). Psychology of Science: Contributions to Metascience. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-35410-2. Fantl, J. (2016). Knowledge how. The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, Spring 2016. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/knowledge-how/ (Archived by WebCite® at http://www.webcitation.org/6rKuS7LCM) Bosancic, B. (2016). Information in the knowledge acquisition process. Journal of Documentation, 72(5), 930–960. Frohmann, B. (2004). Documentation redux: prolegomenon to (another) philosophy of information. Library Trends, 52(3), 387–407.Mladenović, Bojana (2017). Kuhn's Legacy: Epistemology, Metaphilosophy, and Pragmatism. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-52074-4. Briesen, J. (2014). Pictorial art and epistemic aims. In H. Klinke (Ed.), Art theory as visual epistemology (pp. 11–27). Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars. Many accounts of epistemic concepts in information studies take data to be the most fundamental concept, on which other concepts rely ( Yu, 2015; Zins, 2007). The concept of data itself has been little explored, as it is usually only discussed as an approach to information. To that end, Furner ( 2016) offers a historical conceptual review of data. The primary connotation of data in the modern day seems to be related to computing. However, the word has had many connotations in its long history: as a gift (since 100 BC), as metadata (since 100 AD), as a premise in a math problem (since 1645), as evidence (since 1648), as information about something (since 1630), as computer bits (since 1980), and as a difference (since 2000) ( Furner, 2016).

At the end of the battle that turned the tide of the war, 158,854 casualties were recorded by Romania (dead, wounded, missing), representing two-thirds of the troops. It was the greatest disaster in the history of the Romanians, and the Germans blamed the Romanian Army for the failure at Stalingrad. Welton village church is dedicated to St. Helen. The local council information sheet describes the village as being centred on the church thus: You took the words out my mouth, Ishmael. But permit me to amend your opaque remarks. People not only think their friends are not cretins, they think them the last word in wisdom. On account of them holding the same views as themselves. Everyone else is, by extension, a cretin. Perhaps that's what you meant. In general, information is taken to be an epistemic entity between data and knowledge ( Bates, 2010; Furner, 2010; Yu, 2015). According to prevailing accounts, information is data which is bundled with meaning ( Bates, 2006; Floridi, 2011; Yu, 2015). Yu ( 2015) is careful to emphasize that the bundling of meaning always occurs in a specific context. A more detailed account of information is given in the philosophy of information by Floridi ( 2011), who defines information as diaphoric data that is well-formed (according to a relevant syntax), meaningful (according to relevant semantics) and true (correct within a relevant level of abstraction, or domain of applicability). Interestingly, Budd ( 2011), without reference to Floridi's work, proposes that a satisfactory account of information must hinge on meaning and truth, lending credence to Floridi's account.Within these sections, the core topics and debates are presented, analyzed, and set into broader historical and disciplinary contexts. The central topics covered include: the prehistory of applied epistemology, expertise and scientific authority, epistemic aspects of political and social philosophy, epistemology and the law, and epistemology and medicine. Mladenović, Bojana (2017-09-05). Kuhn's Legacy: Epistemology, Metaphilosophy, and Pragmatism. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-52074-4.

Based on this review, a conceptual epistemic framework emerges for the consideration of understanding in information studies, which is illustrated in Figure 1 and described in the following paragraphs.

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Applied epistemology is informed by skepticism in philosophy, as it maintains that things should not be taken at face value – that, in reflection, what people knew as "truths" could turn out to be false. [8] Applied epistemology has been concerned with practical questions about truth, knowledge, and other epistemic values but these are not all social questions. [10] It asks questions about what we know and are justified in believing. [13]

Capurro, R. (2008). On Floridi's metaphysical foundation of information ecology. Ethics and Information Technology, 10(2/3), 167–173. Mustapha, Zakari; Aigbavboa, Clinton; Thwala, Wellington (2018). Contractor Health and Safety Compliance for Small to Medium-Sized Construction Companies. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p.115. ISBN 978-1-138-08155-0. Legal epistemology is considered a form of applied epistemology for its evaluation of whether legal systems of investigation that seeks the truth are structured in a manner that actually lead to justified and true beliefs. [34] Applied epistemics allows the legal system to draw from philosophy. For instance, David Hume stated that, "we entertain a suspicion concerning any matter of fact, when the witnesses contradict each other; when they are but few, or a doubtful character; when they have an interest in what they affirm; when they deliver their testimony with hesitation, or on the contrary, with too violent asseverations." This generic view is said to allow legal procedure the effective evaluation of testimonies. [10] Philosophy [ edit ] Fallis, D., and Whitcomb, D. (2009). Epistemic values and information management. The Information Society, 25(3), 175–189.This is a larger case of the same phenomenon. The reason is obvious enough. If A disagrees with B it means that A is either wrong or, at the very least, will have to establish that B is wrong. Since it is very unlikely that B will be, as it were, 'simply wrong' this means that A will have to examine the matter, however cursorily. But the most cursory examination will reveal that A's own opinion is based on some pretty threadbare reasoning because otherwise B cannot possibly have fallen into error on the point. Social epistemology accounts for the social nature of knowledge and justification. The quality and extent of an individual’s knowledge depends heavily on the people that individual deems trustworthy. The same is the case for group or public knowledge (knowledge generally accepted as true by a collective). Individuals and perspectives granted expert status have more influence on what is accepted, but this means that many individuals and perspectives will be ignored. Furthermore, it is often types or groups of people who are excluded, which becomes problematic if the perspectives of those groups are valuable to the task of knowledge creation. Standpoint epistemology takes this worry seriously. Standpoint epistemology studies the relationship between an individual’s social status and that individual’s epistemic position. Of particular importance to the theory is the notion that the relative power of individuals and groups influences who we consider to be reliable sources, causing us to ignore the perspectives of less powerful groups. Furthermore, standpoint theory argues that the exclusion of entire groups harms the entire enterprise of gaining knowledge. Many scholars draw a link between information and knowledge, sometimes also including data ( Floridi, 2011; Rowley, 2007; Zins, 2007). Bosancic ( 2016), for instance, conceptualizes information 'sap' explicitly to connect data and knowledge. Floridi ( 2011) sees knowledge as multiple units of information that are embedded in a coherent explanatory network. In a similar move, Bates defines knowledge as ' information given meaning and integrated with other contents of understanding' ( Bates, 2006, p. 1042). Yu's ( 2015) view of knowledge differs here: Yu sees knowledge as a species of meaning (which, combined with data, forms information) that is derived from some socially acceptable knowledge-generating means (e.g., academic research). For Yu, knowledge is analytically isolated from its expression; knowledge (e.g., Newton's law of universal gravitation) can be expressed with different data (e.g., as a technical formula vs. in children's picture books) and thus furnish different information. Furner, J. (2010). Philosophy and information studies. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 44, 159–200. Bawden, D. (2007). Organised complexity, meaning and understanding. Aslib Proceedings, 59(4/5), 307–327.